LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT
Local self-government means management of local affairs by such local bodies as have been elected by the people living in that particular locality. The Charter Act of 1793 put the municipal institution on a statutory basis. The Governor-General was el1}powered to appoint Justices of Peace in the presidency towns. The Indian Council Act of 1851 inaugurated the policy of legislative devolution and Mayo's Resolution of 1870 on financial decentralisation was a natural corollary. The provincial governments were authorised to resort to local taxation to balance their budgets. Ripon's viceroyalty saw the liberalisation of administration in every sphere. The Resolution of 1882 stands out as a landmark in the development of local selfgovernment. Ripon desired the provincial governments to apply in case of local bodies, the same principle of finan decentralisation which Mayo's Government had bet towards them. The provincial governments were asked undertake a careful survey of provincial, local and murl pal finances.
In 1908, the entire subject of local self-government reviewed by the Royal Commission on Oecentralisation a important recommendations were made almost in evi sphere. The Commission laid emphasis on the -developmi of village panchayats and sub-district boards. Regarding municipalities, the commission urged the withdrawal
existing restrictions on their powers of taxation and a! stoppage of regular grants-in-aid from provincial govel ments except for undertaking large projects such as thJ concerning drainage or water supply. It suggested tl} municipalities might undertake the responsibility for pI mary education, hospitals, famine relief, etc.
The historic announcement of August 20, 1917, ma the government review the functioning of the local se government. It suggested that the local bodies should
made as representative as possible of the people. Regarding the village panchayats, the resolution stated that the local bodies could not be looked upon as mere mechanic, adjuncts of local self-government but as associations designed signed to develop village corporate life, keeping in miIi.l social and traditional realities. The provincial government were urged to make an effective beginning towards deve!
opment of village panchayats.
With the coming of the Government of India Act 191 local self-government became a 'transferred' subject und popular ministerial control. Each province was allowed to
develop local self-governments according to their needs and requirement. By the Government of India Act, 1935 furth
impetus was given to the development.
Monday, November 30, 2009
ARMY AND POLICE
ARMY AND POLICE
The bulk of the Company's army consisted of Indian sepoys. The army grew in size along with British expansion. In 1857, the strength of the army in India was around 3.5 lakh of whom about 2.5 lakh were Indians, but its officers were exclusively British. The highest Indian officer was a subedar. After 1857, Indian soldiers were excluded .from arsenals and artillery. The number of English soldiers was increased. Recruitment of Indians was restricted to particular regions and a propaganda made of 'martial' and 'nonmartial' communities of Indians. Punjabis, Gurkhas and Pathans, who had assisted the British in the suppression of the revolt, were declared to be 'martial' and were recruited in great numbers. By 1875, nearly half of the British soldiers were recruited from Punjab.
Lord Cornwallis gave proper shape to the police force by establishing the system of circles or thanas headed by a daroga, who was an Indian. Later, the post of district superintendent of police was created to head the police organisation in a district. In the villages, policing was left to the villagers. In 1791, a superintendent of police for Calcutta was appointed and soon other cities were placed in the charge of kotwals.
The bulk of the Company's army consisted of Indian sepoys. The army grew in size along with British expansion. In 1857, the strength of the army in India was around 3.5 lakh of whom about 2.5 lakh were Indians, but its officers were exclusively British. The highest Indian officer was a subedar. After 1857, Indian soldiers were excluded .from arsenals and artillery. The number of English soldiers was increased. Recruitment of Indians was restricted to particular regions and a propaganda made of 'martial' and 'nonmartial' communities of Indians. Punjabis, Gurkhas and Pathans, who had assisted the British in the suppression of the revolt, were declared to be 'martial' and were recruited in great numbers. By 1875, nearly half of the British soldiers were recruited from Punjab.
Lord Cornwallis gave proper shape to the police force by establishing the system of circles or thanas headed by a daroga, who was an Indian. Later, the post of district superintendent of police was created to head the police organisation in a district. In the villages, policing was left to the villagers. In 1791, a superintendent of police for Calcutta was appointed and soon other cities were placed in the charge of kotwals.
JUDICIARY
JUDICIARY
At the commercial stage of its career, the East India Company had its own courts of law for administering justice among its servants. In 1772, Warren Hastings took the first step in providing a well organised judicial system. The system was stabilised by Lord Cornwallis. The Bengal Regulation (also known as the Cornwallis code) of 1793 bound the court to take decisions according to the provisions contained in it. To a great extent, the regulation accommodated the personal laws of Hindus and Muslims and stated them in clear terms in English and regional languages. The full codification of the Indian system of law and court procedure was taken up in 1833 when the government appointed the India Law Commission.
At the commercial stage of its career, the East India Company had its own courts of law for administering justice among its servants. In 1772, Warren Hastings took the first step in providing a well organised judicial system. The system was stabilised by Lord Cornwallis. The Bengal Regulation (also known as the Cornwallis code) of 1793 bound the court to take decisions according to the provisions contained in it. To a great extent, the regulation accommodated the personal laws of Hindus and Muslims and stated them in clear terms in English and regional languages. The full codification of the Indian system of law and court procedure was taken up in 1833 when the government appointed the India Law Commission.
The Islington Commission, The Montagu-Chelmsford Report and The Lee Commission
The Islington Commission (1912) Following more Indian pressures for greater share in public services, the British Government set up a Royal Commission on Civil Service under Lord Islington in 1912. It recommended:
(i) 25 per cent of the posts in the superior civil service should be filled from among Indians, partly by direct recruitment and partly by promotion.
(ii) the examination for the recruitment of civil ser
vants should be held in India.
The Montagu-Chelmsford Report (1918) The MontaguChelmsford report, which took a more liberal and sympa thetic view on Indians missing the civil service proposed that
(i) India should be the venue for conducting examination for 33 per cent of the superior posts and that this percentage should increase by 1.5 per cent annually;
(ii) there should be nQ racial discrimination in matter
of appointment; and
(iii) there must be a system of appointment in India for all those public services for which there was a recruitment in England, open to Europeans and, Indians alike.
These proposals were accepted and became the basis of appointment for about ten years.
The Lee Commission (1923) A Royal Commission under Lord Lee was appointed in 1923. The Lee commission submitted its report in 1924. Its major recommendations were as follows:
(i) 20 per cent of the officers should be recruited by promotion from provincial civil services and of the remaining 80 per cent, half should be British and half Indian; and
(ii) a Public Service Commission with five full-fledged members should be appointed immediately. (Such a commission was appointed in 1925.)
The government accepted most of the Lee Commission recommendations.
(i) 25 per cent of the posts in the superior civil service should be filled from among Indians, partly by direct recruitment and partly by promotion.
(ii) the examination for the recruitment of civil ser
vants should be held in India.
The Montagu-Chelmsford Report (1918) The MontaguChelmsford report, which took a more liberal and sympa thetic view on Indians missing the civil service proposed that
(i) India should be the venue for conducting examination for 33 per cent of the superior posts and that this percentage should increase by 1.5 per cent annually;
(ii) there should be nQ racial discrimination in matter
of appointment; and
(iii) there must be a system of appointment in India for all those public services for which there was a recruitment in England, open to Europeans and, Indians alike.
These proposals were accepted and became the basis of appointment for about ten years.
The Lee Commission (1923) A Royal Commission under Lord Lee was appointed in 1923. The Lee commission submitted its report in 1924. Its major recommendations were as follows:
(i) 20 per cent of the officers should be recruited by promotion from provincial civil services and of the remaining 80 per cent, half should be British and half Indian; and
(ii) a Public Service Commission with five full-fledged members should be appointed immediately. (Such a commission was appointed in 1925.)
The government accepted most of the Lee Commission recommendations.
The Aitchison Commission (1886)
In 1886, Lord Dufferin appointed a "Public Service Commission" under Sir Charles Aitchison to investigate the problems of the civil services in India. The commission made the following decisions:
(i) It rejected the idea of simultaneous examination for covenanted service and advised the abolition of the statutory civil service.
(ii) It proposed the setting up of provincial civil service, the members of which would be separately recruited in every province either by promotion from lower ranks or by direct recruitment.
(iii) It suggested that the terms 'covenanted' and 'uncovenanted' should be replaced by the terms 'imperial' and 'provincial' respectively.
(iv) It suggested 19 and 23 as the minimum and maximum age limits for Indians at the open civil service examinations.
The recommendations of Aitchison were accepted and the covenanted civil service came to be known as Civil Service of India. The provincial service was called after the particular province.
(i) It rejected the idea of simultaneous examination for covenanted service and advised the abolition of the statutory civil service.
(ii) It proposed the setting up of provincial civil service, the members of which would be separately recruited in every province either by promotion from lower ranks or by direct recruitment.
(iii) It suggested that the terms 'covenanted' and 'uncovenanted' should be replaced by the terms 'imperial' and 'provincial' respectively.
(iv) It suggested 19 and 23 as the minimum and maximum age limits for Indians at the open civil service examinations.
The recommendations of Aitchison were accepted and the covenanted civil service came to be known as Civil Service of India. The provincial service was called after the particular province.
Administration Under British Rule
CIVIL SERVICE
As the British Parliament was in a position to exercise only occasional or limited control over Indian administration, the Government of India was a bureaucracy or government by officials in the strict sense of the term. Hence the character of the higher civil services under British rule assumed more than usual significance.
The credit for providing India with a civil service in the modem sense of the word goes to Lord Cornwallis. Efforts were made to make the service as attractive as possible. But it was only Lord Wellesley who realized that the Company's growing empire could not be.-administered satisfactorily by those who were recruited and trained as the agents of a commercial concern.
Desiring that they be given proper training before being assigned any job, he established the Fort William College in Calcutta in 1801 to train the Company's civil servants in literature and languages of India. However, the directors of the company disapproved of his action. In 1805, the Company established the East India College at Haileybury (England) for two years' training of young persons nominated for service in India. Wellesley's policy of imperial expansion opened to the Company's servants new avenues of lucrative employment and distinction. Closer relations with the country's powers called into existence a new class of diplomats, known as Residents, who formed the link between the Governor-General and the subordinate allies of the Company. But this system was not a proper method of attracting young men to assume heavy responsibilities. The system of recruitment through competitive examinations held in England was introduced after passing of the Charter Act of 1853. The first examination was held in London in 1855. But Indians had to face a lot of hurdles in appearing for these competitive examinations.
Despite the removal of the colour bar in the matter of appointment by the Charter Acts of 1833 and 1853, the highest posts which were actually thrown open to Indians were those of Deputy Collector and Deputy Magistrate.
As the British Parliament was in a position to exercise only occasional or limited control over Indian administration, the Government of India was a bureaucracy or government by officials in the strict sense of the term. Hence the character of the higher civil services under British rule assumed more than usual significance.
The credit for providing India with a civil service in the modem sense of the word goes to Lord Cornwallis. Efforts were made to make the service as attractive as possible. But it was only Lord Wellesley who realized that the Company's growing empire could not be.-administered satisfactorily by those who were recruited and trained as the agents of a commercial concern.
Desiring that they be given proper training before being assigned any job, he established the Fort William College in Calcutta in 1801 to train the Company's civil servants in literature and languages of India. However, the directors of the company disapproved of his action. In 1805, the Company established the East India College at Haileybury (England) for two years' training of young persons nominated for service in India. Wellesley's policy of imperial expansion opened to the Company's servants new avenues of lucrative employment and distinction. Closer relations with the country's powers called into existence a new class of diplomats, known as Residents, who formed the link between the Governor-General and the subordinate allies of the Company. But this system was not a proper method of attracting young men to assume heavy responsibilities. The system of recruitment through competitive examinations held in England was introduced after passing of the Charter Act of 1853. The first examination was held in London in 1855. But Indians had to face a lot of hurdles in appearing for these competitive examinations.
Despite the removal of the colour bar in the matter of appointment by the Charter Acts of 1833 and 1853, the highest posts which were actually thrown open to Indians were those of Deputy Collector and Deputy Magistrate.
Viceroys during the British Rule
LORD MAYO (1869-1872) He was very popular among the Indian princes. During his reign were relations were improved with Sher Ali; for the first time in Indian history a census was held in 1871; and a college was set up at Ajmer, the 'Mayo College'. Lord Mayo was assassinated in 1872, while he was touring the convict settlement in the Andamans.
LORD NORTHBROOK (1872-1876) The events in his reign were: the deposition of the Gaekwar (1875); visit of Prince of Wales (later King Edward VII); abolition of income tax; and the Kuka Movement.
LORD LYITON (1876-1880) During his reign, the Parliament passed the Royal Titles Act conferring upon Queen Victoria the title of 'Empress of India'; Lord Lytton held a magnificent Durbar at Delhi on January 1, 1877 where the Queen was declared 'Kaiser-i-Hind'; the Vernacular Press Act was passed in 1"878; the foundation stone of the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College, Aligarh was laid in 1877; Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880); lI;)wered the age of candidates giving the I.C.S. examination to 19 years; and a Famine Committee under Gen. Richard Stratchey was appointed (1878).
LORD RIPON (1880-1884) The chief events of his period were: end of the Second Anglo-Afghan War; Mysore restored to the deposed Raja Krishna (188i); Factory Act of 1881; the Vernacular Press Act repealed in 1882; the Punjab University founded in 1882 (now in Pakistan); and po~cy of free trade introduced. The most important constructive work of Lord Ripon was the enactment of a series of Acts, which made local self-government more effective. The llbert Bill was intrpduced during his time. The Hunter Commission Report on education came in 1882. Lord Ripon . was the most liked of the British Viceroys.
LORD DUFFERIN (1884-1888) The important events of Lord Dufferin's time were: the Third Anglo-Burmese War, leading to annexation of upper Burma; the Punjdeh Affair (1885); formation of the Indian National Congress (1885); and Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee celebration in 1887.
LORD LANSDOWNE (1888-1894) lmportant events were: demarcation of the Afghan boundary (Durand line); rebellion in Manipur; and the Second Indian Council Act (1892).
LORD ELGIN II (1894-1899) He was the son of Elgin I. The important events of his period were: a bubonic plague in Bombay (1896); and severe drought in 1896-97 at Bikaner and the Hissar district.
LORD CURZON (1899-1905) He was the ablest among the viceroys. Some of the important events of his period were: creation of the North-West Frontier Province in order to suppress the revolt of the frontier tribes (1897-1898); a mission sent to Tibet (1904); reduction of the salt-tax to onehalf and raising of the limit of taxable income; enactment of the Punjab Land Alienation Act (1900); founding of. an Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa (Bihar); improvment of irrigation with the construction of the 'Triple Canal Project'. Also, in 1904, he passed the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act and founded the Archaeological Department. Victoria Memorial was constructed in 1905, in memory of Queen Victoria, who died in 1901; and the second Delhi Durbar was held in 1903 to mark the accession to the throne of Edward VII. The most eventful event of his reign was the partition of Bengal on October 16, 1905.
LORD MINTO II (1905-1910) Great-grand son of Lord Minto I, his reign is especially known for the Minto-Morley Reforms (1909).
LORD HARDINGE II (1910-1916) He was the grandson of Lord Hardinge I. The chief events of his time were: Coronation Durbar in 1911, in honour of George V; r:evocation of the partition of Bengal (1911); capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911); and laying of the foundation stone of the Banaras Hindu University (1916).
LORD CHELMSFORD (1916-1921) Lord Chelmsford's regime proved to be reactionary and it led to great Unrest in the country. The chief events of his time were: passing of the Government of India Act, 1919, which introduced dyarchy in the Provinces; Rowlatt Act 1919; the Jallianwala Bagh massacre on April 13, 1919; starting of the Noncooperation Movement; and the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919.
LORD READING (1921-1926) The chief events were: put an end to the Non-cooperation movement; arrival of the Prince of Wales, who ascended the throne as King Edward VIII; and the Moplah Revolt of 1921 on the southwestern coast .of India.
LORD IRWIN (1926-1931) Lord Irwin, afterwards Lord Halifax, was the grandson of Charles Wood. The chief events of his period were: (i) the appointment of the Simon Commission (1928); passing of Independence R~solution (1929) by the Indian National Congress; the Civil Disobedience Movement started on March 12, 1930; the First Round Table Conference (1930); and the Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931).
LORD WILLINGDON (1931-1936) The important events of his period were: Second Round Table Conference (1931); Communal Award of August 1932 announced; the Poona Pact of 1932; the Third Round Table Conference (1932); and passing of the Government of India Act, 1935.
LORD LINLITHGOW (1936-1943) He had the longest reign as viceroy of India. During his time, the Act' of 1935 came into operation on April 1, 1937; Congress ministries were formed; Cripps Mission (1942) came into being; and Quit India Resolution passed on August 8, 1942. A terrible
famine occurred in Bengal in 1943.
LORD W AVELL (1943-1947) The important events of his time were: founding of Indian National Army (1943); Simla Conference (1945); a Naval Mutiny in Bombay (1946); coming of the Cabinet Mission to India; observation of 16th August, 1946 as the Direct Action Day in Calcutta by the Muslim League; riots in Bengal and Bihar; setting up of an Interim Government; and British Prime Minister Attlee's announcement of 20th February 1947, that power would be transferred to the Indians by June 1948.
LORD MOUNTBATIEN (March 1947-August 1947) tie was the last viceroy of India. Some of the important events of his period were: Declaration of June 3, 1947; passing of Independence Act, 1947; Pakistart's coming into being on 14th August 1947, and at midnight of August 14-15, the British authority in India coming to an end.
LORD NORTHBROOK (1872-1876) The events in his reign were: the deposition of the Gaekwar (1875); visit of Prince of Wales (later King Edward VII); abolition of income tax; and the Kuka Movement.
LORD LYITON (1876-1880) During his reign, the Parliament passed the Royal Titles Act conferring upon Queen Victoria the title of 'Empress of India'; Lord Lytton held a magnificent Durbar at Delhi on January 1, 1877 where the Queen was declared 'Kaiser-i-Hind'; the Vernacular Press Act was passed in 1"878; the foundation stone of the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College, Aligarh was laid in 1877; Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880); lI;)wered the age of candidates giving the I.C.S. examination to 19 years; and a Famine Committee under Gen. Richard Stratchey was appointed (1878).
LORD RIPON (1880-1884) The chief events of his period were: end of the Second Anglo-Afghan War; Mysore restored to the deposed Raja Krishna (188i); Factory Act of 1881; the Vernacular Press Act repealed in 1882; the Punjab University founded in 1882 (now in Pakistan); and po~cy of free trade introduced. The most important constructive work of Lord Ripon was the enactment of a series of Acts, which made local self-government more effective. The llbert Bill was intrpduced during his time. The Hunter Commission Report on education came in 1882. Lord Ripon . was the most liked of the British Viceroys.
LORD DUFFERIN (1884-1888) The important events of Lord Dufferin's time were: the Third Anglo-Burmese War, leading to annexation of upper Burma; the Punjdeh Affair (1885); formation of the Indian National Congress (1885); and Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee celebration in 1887.
LORD LANSDOWNE (1888-1894) lmportant events were: demarcation of the Afghan boundary (Durand line); rebellion in Manipur; and the Second Indian Council Act (1892).
LORD ELGIN II (1894-1899) He was the son of Elgin I. The important events of his period were: a bubonic plague in Bombay (1896); and severe drought in 1896-97 at Bikaner and the Hissar district.
LORD CURZON (1899-1905) He was the ablest among the viceroys. Some of the important events of his period were: creation of the North-West Frontier Province in order to suppress the revolt of the frontier tribes (1897-1898); a mission sent to Tibet (1904); reduction of the salt-tax to onehalf and raising of the limit of taxable income; enactment of the Punjab Land Alienation Act (1900); founding of. an Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa (Bihar); improvment of irrigation with the construction of the 'Triple Canal Project'. Also, in 1904, he passed the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act and founded the Archaeological Department. Victoria Memorial was constructed in 1905, in memory of Queen Victoria, who died in 1901; and the second Delhi Durbar was held in 1903 to mark the accession to the throne of Edward VII. The most eventful event of his reign was the partition of Bengal on October 16, 1905.
LORD MINTO II (1905-1910) Great-grand son of Lord Minto I, his reign is especially known for the Minto-Morley Reforms (1909).
LORD HARDINGE II (1910-1916) He was the grandson of Lord Hardinge I. The chief events of his time were: Coronation Durbar in 1911, in honour of George V; r:evocation of the partition of Bengal (1911); capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911); and laying of the foundation stone of the Banaras Hindu University (1916).
LORD CHELMSFORD (1916-1921) Lord Chelmsford's regime proved to be reactionary and it led to great Unrest in the country. The chief events of his time were: passing of the Government of India Act, 1919, which introduced dyarchy in the Provinces; Rowlatt Act 1919; the Jallianwala Bagh massacre on April 13, 1919; starting of the Noncooperation Movement; and the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919.
LORD READING (1921-1926) The chief events were: put an end to the Non-cooperation movement; arrival of the Prince of Wales, who ascended the throne as King Edward VIII; and the Moplah Revolt of 1921 on the southwestern coast .of India.
LORD IRWIN (1926-1931) Lord Irwin, afterwards Lord Halifax, was the grandson of Charles Wood. The chief events of his period were: (i) the appointment of the Simon Commission (1928); passing of Independence R~solution (1929) by the Indian National Congress; the Civil Disobedience Movement started on March 12, 1930; the First Round Table Conference (1930); and the Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931).
LORD WILLINGDON (1931-1936) The important events of his period were: Second Round Table Conference (1931); Communal Award of August 1932 announced; the Poona Pact of 1932; the Third Round Table Conference (1932); and passing of the Government of India Act, 1935.
LORD LINLITHGOW (1936-1943) He had the longest reign as viceroy of India. During his time, the Act' of 1935 came into operation on April 1, 1937; Congress ministries were formed; Cripps Mission (1942) came into being; and Quit India Resolution passed on August 8, 1942. A terrible
famine occurred in Bengal in 1943.
LORD W AVELL (1943-1947) The important events of his time were: founding of Indian National Army (1943); Simla Conference (1945); a Naval Mutiny in Bombay (1946); coming of the Cabinet Mission to India; observation of 16th August, 1946 as the Direct Action Day in Calcutta by the Muslim League; riots in Bengal and Bihar; setting up of an Interim Government; and British Prime Minister Attlee's announcement of 20th February 1947, that power would be transferred to the Indians by June 1948.
LORD MOUNTBATIEN (March 1947-August 1947) tie was the last viceroy of India. Some of the important events of his period were: Declaration of June 3, 1947; passing of Independence Act, 1947; Pakistart's coming into being on 14th August 1947, and at midnight of August 14-15, the British authority in India coming to an end.
GOVERNORS-ENERAL During British Period
WARREN HASTINGS (1772-1785) He came as the Governor of Bengal for two years. In 1774, under the Regulating Act (1773), he became the Governor-General. The important events of his reign were: doing away with the system of dual government; transfer of the treasury from Murshidabad to Calcutta; collection of revenue taken over by the Company; appointment of the Board of Revenue; giving of land to the highest bidder; establishment of the Sadar Diwani Ada/at (Supreme Civil Court) and the Sadar Nizamat Ada/at (Supreme Criminal Court); compilation of a simple code of laws; reduction in the allowances of princely states; sale of the districts of Kara and Allahabad to the Nawab of Avadh; Regulating Act 1773; Rohilla War 1774; execution of Nand Kumar; First Anglo-Maratha War; Second Anglo-Mysore War; deposition of Chet Singh and affairs of the Begums of Avadh; Pitt's India Act (1784). Warren Hastings resigned in 1785. While in England, he was impeached under the charge of taking bribes. He was exonerated in the end.
LORD CORNWALLIS (1786-1793)
Lord Cornwallis succeeded Sir John Macpherson (1785-1786). The important events of his reign were: abolition of all the superfluous posts; increase in pay of the Company's servants; ban on private trade; establishment of lower grade courts; appointment of district judges; establishment of appellate courts; code of conduct for the police; abolition of severe punishments; the Permanent Settlement of Bengal (1793); giving of land on permanent basis to the zamindars instead of the highest bidder every year; and Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-1792).
SIR JOHN SHORE (1793-1798) He is famous for his policy of non-intervention.
LORD WELLESLEY (1798-1805) He was a seasoned politician and a great imperialist. The important events of his reign were: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799); Second Anglo-MarathaWar (1803); Third Anglo-Maratha War (18041805); Annexation of Thanjavur, Surat and the Carnatic; and the Subsidiary Alliance-a system to keep the Indian rulers under control and to make the British the paramount power.
SIR GEORGE BARLOW (1805-1807) After the recall of Lord Wellesley, Lord Cornwallis was appointed GovernorGeneral for a second time. But he died after a few months and was succeeded by Sir George Barlow. He followed a policy of non-intervention and the only important event of his reign was the mutiny at Vellore in 1806.
LORD MINTO I (1807-1813) The chief events of his reign were: rebellion in Travancore (1808); unrest in Bundelkhand; Treaty of Amritsar (1809) signed with Ranjit Singh (by this treaty Sutlej was declared the southern boundary of Ranjit's dominions); and renewal of the Company's Charter 1813.
MARQUESS OF HASTINGS (1813-1823) He renounced the policy of non-intervention and instead adopted a policy of intervention and war. Some of the main events of his period were: establishment of several schools; appointment of Indians to high jobs of responsibility; regulations for the protection of tenants from the zamindars; war with Nepal (1814-1816); extermination of Pindaris; and Fourth AngloMaratha War (1817-1818).
LORD AMHERST (1823-1828) His administration is remembered for two events: the First Burmese War (18241826) and the fall of Bharatpur (1826).
LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK (1828-1835) He was the first Governor-General to take into consideration the duty of benefiting the people rather than mere expansion of power. His reforms included: prohibition of sati (1829); suppression of thuggee; banning of female infanticide and human sacrifices; imposition of tax on opium; reduction in salaries of civil servants; curtailment of Bhatta; abolition of appellate courts; creation of a new post of commissioner; addition of a law member (Macaulay) to the Executive Council; acceptance of English as the medium of instruction after Macaulay's recommendation; and opening of the first Indian medical college at Calcutta. His reign also witnessed the annexation of Mysore, Kachhar and Coorg; and treaties with Ranjit Singh in 1831 and with Amirs of Sind in 1832; and Charter Act of 1833.
SIR CHARLES METCALFE (1835-1836) He is remembered for removing the restrictions imposed on the vernacular press.
LORD AUCKLAND (1836-1842) The most important event of his reign was the First Afghan War, which proved to be a disaster for the English.
LORDELLENBOROUGH (1843-1844) He brought end to the First Afghan War, annexed Sind to the Brit empire (1843), and invaded Gwalior.
LORD HARDINGE (1844-1848) He succeeded Willi, Bird who held the post for a very short period. The m important event of his reign was the First Sikh War (IS 1846). In the sphere of reforms, he exempted many co modities from excise and the tax on salt was also reduc to half. He further made eff0rts to abolish the sati sysb in the' Indian states.
LORD DALHOUSIE (1848-1856) He extended the e: pire. Events in his reign included: appointment of separc lieutenant-governor for Bengal; introduction of non-regu tion system in the newly-conquered territories and wi powers to the deputy commissioners; making Simla t summer capital; headquarters of artillery moved fr(J Calcutta to Meerut; shifting of army headquarters to Sim and formation of the Gorkha Regiment; founding of Pubi Works Department with the object of constructing at maintaining roads, canals, bridges, etc.; establishment the postal system on modern lines through the length at breadth of the country, which made communication easiE introduction of uniform system of postage; introduction the electric telegraph system; construction of the fir railway line in 1853 from Bombay to Thane; Sir Chari! Wood's Despatch on Education (1854) which recommende a graded educational system; and setting up of universitit at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras; beginning of competiti\ examinations for the Indian Civil Service; Widow Rema riage Act (1856); passing of law that if any person change his religion,. he would still inherit his ancestral propert.
Lord Dalhousie is famous for his Doctrine of Lapse. Th Second Anglo-Sikh War and the annexation of Punja (1849), Second Anglo-Burmese War, abolition of titles ani pensions, and Charter Act 1853 are other events.
LORD CANNING (1856-1862) The most importan event of his time was the First War of Indian Independeno or Mutiny of 1857. There were radical changes in the Britisl
administrative policies in India. After the Mutiny thi Government was transferred from the Company to thi British Crown. With the Queen's Proclamation of 1858 Canning was made the first Viceroy of India. During hi! time, a five percent income tax was imposed on all eariring beyond five hundred rupees a year; a uniform duty of ten percent was imposed on all important goods; levy on salt was enhanced; universities of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras were set up in 1857; High Courts were set up at Calcutta Madras and Bombay; a separate police department was se up in every province; and the Act of 1861 came into being.
LORD ELGIN (1862-1863) During his time, the Wahabis, a sect of the Muslims" on the north-western frontier of India rose in revolt, but they were suppressed.
SIR JOHN LAWRENCE (1864-1869) The chief events (Jf his time were: war with Bhutan (1865); famine in Orissa (1866); policy towards Afghanistan, known as the 'Policy of Masterly Inactivity'.
LORD CORNWALLIS (1786-1793)
Lord Cornwallis succeeded Sir John Macpherson (1785-1786). The important events of his reign were: abolition of all the superfluous posts; increase in pay of the Company's servants; ban on private trade; establishment of lower grade courts; appointment of district judges; establishment of appellate courts; code of conduct for the police; abolition of severe punishments; the Permanent Settlement of Bengal (1793); giving of land on permanent basis to the zamindars instead of the highest bidder every year; and Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-1792).
SIR JOHN SHORE (1793-1798) He is famous for his policy of non-intervention.
LORD WELLESLEY (1798-1805) He was a seasoned politician and a great imperialist. The important events of his reign were: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799); Second Anglo-MarathaWar (1803); Third Anglo-Maratha War (18041805); Annexation of Thanjavur, Surat and the Carnatic; and the Subsidiary Alliance-a system to keep the Indian rulers under control and to make the British the paramount power.
SIR GEORGE BARLOW (1805-1807) After the recall of Lord Wellesley, Lord Cornwallis was appointed GovernorGeneral for a second time. But he died after a few months and was succeeded by Sir George Barlow. He followed a policy of non-intervention and the only important event of his reign was the mutiny at Vellore in 1806.
LORD MINTO I (1807-1813) The chief events of his reign were: rebellion in Travancore (1808); unrest in Bundelkhand; Treaty of Amritsar (1809) signed with Ranjit Singh (by this treaty Sutlej was declared the southern boundary of Ranjit's dominions); and renewal of the Company's Charter 1813.
MARQUESS OF HASTINGS (1813-1823) He renounced the policy of non-intervention and instead adopted a policy of intervention and war. Some of the main events of his period were: establishment of several schools; appointment of Indians to high jobs of responsibility; regulations for the protection of tenants from the zamindars; war with Nepal (1814-1816); extermination of Pindaris; and Fourth AngloMaratha War (1817-1818).
LORD AMHERST (1823-1828) His administration is remembered for two events: the First Burmese War (18241826) and the fall of Bharatpur (1826).
LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK (1828-1835) He was the first Governor-General to take into consideration the duty of benefiting the people rather than mere expansion of power. His reforms included: prohibition of sati (1829); suppression of thuggee; banning of female infanticide and human sacrifices; imposition of tax on opium; reduction in salaries of civil servants; curtailment of Bhatta; abolition of appellate courts; creation of a new post of commissioner; addition of a law member (Macaulay) to the Executive Council; acceptance of English as the medium of instruction after Macaulay's recommendation; and opening of the first Indian medical college at Calcutta. His reign also witnessed the annexation of Mysore, Kachhar and Coorg; and treaties with Ranjit Singh in 1831 and with Amirs of Sind in 1832; and Charter Act of 1833.
SIR CHARLES METCALFE (1835-1836) He is remembered for removing the restrictions imposed on the vernacular press.
LORD AUCKLAND (1836-1842) The most important event of his reign was the First Afghan War, which proved to be a disaster for the English.
LORDELLENBOROUGH (1843-1844) He brought end to the First Afghan War, annexed Sind to the Brit empire (1843), and invaded Gwalior.
LORD HARDINGE (1844-1848) He succeeded Willi, Bird who held the post for a very short period. The m important event of his reign was the First Sikh War (IS 1846). In the sphere of reforms, he exempted many co modities from excise and the tax on salt was also reduc to half. He further made eff0rts to abolish the sati sysb in the' Indian states.
LORD DALHOUSIE (1848-1856) He extended the e: pire. Events in his reign included: appointment of separc lieutenant-governor for Bengal; introduction of non-regu tion system in the newly-conquered territories and wi powers to the deputy commissioners; making Simla t summer capital; headquarters of artillery moved fr(J Calcutta to Meerut; shifting of army headquarters to Sim and formation of the Gorkha Regiment; founding of Pubi Works Department with the object of constructing at maintaining roads, canals, bridges, etc.; establishment the postal system on modern lines through the length at breadth of the country, which made communication easiE introduction of uniform system of postage; introduction the electric telegraph system; construction of the fir railway line in 1853 from Bombay to Thane; Sir Chari! Wood's Despatch on Education (1854) which recommende a graded educational system; and setting up of universitit at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras; beginning of competiti\ examinations for the Indian Civil Service; Widow Rema riage Act (1856); passing of law that if any person change his religion,. he would still inherit his ancestral propert.
Lord Dalhousie is famous for his Doctrine of Lapse. Th Second Anglo-Sikh War and the annexation of Punja (1849), Second Anglo-Burmese War, abolition of titles ani pensions, and Charter Act 1853 are other events.
LORD CANNING (1856-1862) The most importan event of his time was the First War of Indian Independeno or Mutiny of 1857. There were radical changes in the Britisl
administrative policies in India. After the Mutiny thi Government was transferred from the Company to thi British Crown. With the Queen's Proclamation of 1858 Canning was made the first Viceroy of India. During hi! time, a five percent income tax was imposed on all eariring beyond five hundred rupees a year; a uniform duty of ten percent was imposed on all important goods; levy on salt was enhanced; universities of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras were set up in 1857; High Courts were set up at Calcutta Madras and Bombay; a separate police department was se up in every province; and the Act of 1861 came into being.
LORD ELGIN (1862-1863) During his time, the Wahabis, a sect of the Muslims" on the north-western frontier of India rose in revolt, but they were suppressed.
SIR JOHN LAWRENCE (1864-1869) The chief events (Jf his time were: war with Bhutan (1865); famine in Orissa (1866); policy towards Afghanistan, known as the 'Policy of Masterly Inactivity'.
SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE
SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE
The Subsidiary Alliance system was used by Lord Wellesley, who was Governor-General from 1798-1805, to build an empire in India. Under the system, the allying Indian state's ruler was compelled to accept the permanent stationing of a British force within his territory and to pay a subsidy for its maintenance. Also, the Indian ruler had to agree to the posting of a British Resident in his court. Under the Subsidiary Treaty, the Indian ruler could not employ any European in his service without the prior approval of the British. Nor could he negotiate with any other Indian ruler without consulting the governor-general. In return for all this, the British agreed to defend the ruler from his enemies and adopt a policy of non-interference in the internal matters of the allied state.
Subsidiary Alliances brought immense gains for the East India Company by extending the areas under British control and bringing relative peace in subsidies and/or territory. During the seven-year rule of Wellesley alone, over 100 small and big states of India signed the Subsidiary Treaty.
The Subsidiary Alliance system was used by Lord Wellesley, who was Governor-General from 1798-1805, to build an empire in India. Under the system, the allying Indian state's ruler was compelled to accept the permanent stationing of a British force within his territory and to pay a subsidy for its maintenance. Also, the Indian ruler had to agree to the posting of a British Resident in his court. Under the Subsidiary Treaty, the Indian ruler could not employ any European in his service without the prior approval of the British. Nor could he negotiate with any other Indian ruler without consulting the governor-general. In return for all this, the British agreed to defend the ruler from his enemies and adopt a policy of non-interference in the internal matters of the allied state.
Subsidiary Alliances brought immense gains for the East India Company by extending the areas under British control and bringing relative peace in subsidies and/or territory. During the seven-year rule of Wellesley alone, over 100 small and big states of India signed the Subsidiary Treaty.
EXPANSION WITHOUT WAR
EXPANSION WITHOUT WAR The English did not
always fight wars to extend their power.
Subsidiary Alliance Lord welleSley repared a scheme to make the English the paramount pow r in India. He took recourse to the subsidiary alliance. The first to come under this system was the Nizam of Hy erabad (1798). He dismissed his army and made over ,to the English the territory which he got after the FoU1'tl{ Anglo-Mysore War.
Next to follol was Mysore (1799). Wellesley compelled the Nawab of Avadh also to accept it (1~1). He was required to keep a large British force and the Company got Gorakhpur, Rohilkhand and the southern part of Ipoab. Peshwa Baji Rao II also accepted it (1802). Many of the other Maratha states, such as the Bhonsle and the Sc I dhia (both in 1803), accepted the alliance. The Holkars were the last Maratha confederation to accept the Subsi ary Alliance in 1818.
Doctrine of Lapse The 'Do trine of Lapse' was Dalhousie's scheme under which, if the ruler of a state protected by the British Gave I t in India should die without a male issue, his adopte son would not succeed him; the state would pass or laps to the British power and the adopted son would inherit a y the personal property of the ruler. As chance wo d have it, during Lord Dalhousie's term many rulers f states died without a male issue and seven states were annexed. The most important of these were Satara (1848), Jhansi and Nagpur (1854). The other small states included Jaitpur (Bundelkhand), Sambhalpur (Orissa), and Baghat (M.P.). Lord Dalhousie annexed Avadh in 1856 after deposing Nawab Wajid Ali Shah on grounds of mis-government. Dalhousie also ended the titles of the Nawab of Carnatic and the Raja of Travancore.
Causes of the Success of the British in India
(i) Greater naval power of the British.
(ii) Development of textile industry.
(ill) Scientific division of labour.
(iv) Feelings of insecurity among the Indian merchants. (v) Lack of tinity among Indian rulers.
(vi) Lack of knowledge of international activities among
Indian rulers.
(vii) Economic prosperity and skilful diplomacy of the
British.
always fight wars to extend their power.
Subsidiary Alliance Lord welleSley repared a scheme to make the English the paramount pow r in India. He took recourse to the subsidiary alliance. The first to come under this system was the Nizam of Hy erabad (1798). He dismissed his army and made over ,to the English the territory which he got after the FoU1'tl{ Anglo-Mysore War.
Next to follol was Mysore (1799). Wellesley compelled the Nawab of Avadh also to accept it (1~1). He was required to keep a large British force and the Company got Gorakhpur, Rohilkhand and the southern part of Ipoab. Peshwa Baji Rao II also accepted it (1802). Many of the other Maratha states, such as the Bhonsle and the Sc I dhia (both in 1803), accepted the alliance. The Holkars were the last Maratha confederation to accept the Subsi ary Alliance in 1818.
Doctrine of Lapse The 'Do trine of Lapse' was Dalhousie's scheme under which, if the ruler of a state protected by the British Gave I t in India should die without a male issue, his adopte son would not succeed him; the state would pass or laps to the British power and the adopted son would inherit a y the personal property of the ruler. As chance wo d have it, during Lord Dalhousie's term many rulers f states died without a male issue and seven states were annexed. The most important of these were Satara (1848), Jhansi and Nagpur (1854). The other small states included Jaitpur (Bundelkhand), Sambhalpur (Orissa), and Baghat (M.P.). Lord Dalhousie annexed Avadh in 1856 after deposing Nawab Wajid Ali Shah on grounds of mis-government. Dalhousie also ended the titles of the Nawab of Carnatic and the Raja of Travancore.
Causes of the Success of the British in India
(i) Greater naval power of the British.
(ii) Development of textile industry.
(ill) Scientific division of labour.
(iv) Feelings of insecurity among the Indian merchants. (v) Lack of tinity among Indian rulers.
(vi) Lack of knowledge of international activities among
Indian rulers.
(vii) Economic prosperity and skilful diplomacy of the
British.
SUPREMACY OVER PUNJAB
SUPREMACY OVER PUNJAB
The English had conquered most of India and they now turned to the Punjab. The death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, led to anarchy in Punjab, which the English tried to exploit. The annexation of Sindh in 1843 made the Sikhs go to war with the English. In the First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846), the Sikhs fought bravely, but owing to the treachery and half-heartedness of their leaders they suffered reverses. They were finally defeated at Sabraon in 1846. A treaty was conduded at Lahore in 1846 and the state placed under British protection. Under the Lahore Treaty, the Jallandhar Doab came under the British control, while Jammu and Kashmir was handed over to Raja Gulab Singh Dogra for a cash payment of five million rupees.
Lord Dalhousie had hardly been in India a few months when the Second Anglo-Sikh War broke out in 1848.. The Sikhs had been feeling humiliated for long. The immediate cause was the rebellion of Mulraj, who proclaimed a religious war against the English. Though the English won in the end, they suffered huge losses. Punjab was annexed to the British empire on March 29, 1849. balip Singh (the minor son of Ranjit Singh), and his mother/Rani Jindan were
pensioned off and sent to England.
The English had conquered most of India and they now turned to the Punjab. The death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, led to anarchy in Punjab, which the English tried to exploit. The annexation of Sindh in 1843 made the Sikhs go to war with the English. In the First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846), the Sikhs fought bravely, but owing to the treachery and half-heartedness of their leaders they suffered reverses. They were finally defeated at Sabraon in 1846. A treaty was conduded at Lahore in 1846 and the state placed under British protection. Under the Lahore Treaty, the Jallandhar Doab came under the British control, while Jammu and Kashmir was handed over to Raja Gulab Singh Dogra for a cash payment of five million rupees.
Lord Dalhousie had hardly been in India a few months when the Second Anglo-Sikh War broke out in 1848.. The Sikhs had been feeling humiliated for long. The immediate cause was the rebellion of Mulraj, who proclaimed a religious war against the English. Though the English won in the end, they suffered huge losses. Punjab was annexed to the British empire on March 29, 1849. balip Singh (the minor son of Ranjit Singh), and his mother/Rani Jindan were
pensioned off and sent to England.
WARS WITH MYSORE
WARS WITH MYSORE
The growing power of Haider Ali in the middle of the 18th century was a source of anxiety to the English, the Nizam and the Marathas. So they formed a triple alliance and declared war against Haider Ali in 1767-the First Anglo-Mysore War. As Haider All was a great diplomat, he bought off the Marathas and won over the Nizam and thus broke the alliance. The war was brought to an end by signing of the Treaty of Madras (1769). All the conquered territories were returned to their respective owners.
After the first Mysore war, the English promised to help Haider All if he was attacked by another power. But when the Marathas attacked his territory in 1771, the English refused to help him. Further, during the American War of Independence, France joined America against England (1778).
Upon this the English captured all the French possessions in India. One of them was the port of Mahe, which was of great importance to Haider All. He asked the English to vacate it. As they did not do so, Haider Ali was forced to declare war in 1780. In the Second Anglo-Mysore War, Haider All was initially successful, but with the arrival of Sir Eyre Coote he was defeated at Porto Novo in 1781. In 1782, Haider Ali died and his son TIpu Sultan carried on the war till 1784 when the two sides concluded peace by signing the Treaty of Mangalore, on the basis of mutual restitution of conquests and liberation of the prisoners.
TIpu Sultan, who was an ambitious ruler, wanted to extend his territory. But the English were always in his way. TIpu Sultan attacked Travancore, which made the British enter the war in 1798 (Third Anglo-Mysore War). TIpu w~s successful in the beginning but with the English under Lord Cornwallis things changed. Cornwallis besieged TIpu in Srirangapatnam (or Seringapatam) in 1792. This compelled TIpu to sign the Treaty of Seringapatam in 1792. By this treaty, TIpu ceded half of his territory to the English and paid a large amount as war indemnity.
TIpu could not get over his defeat at the hands of Lord Cornwallis. He thus made common cause with the French. Wellesley considered this a hostile act. Further, TIpu refused to accept the subsidiary alliance. Thus came the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War in 1799. Though TIpu Sultan fought valiantly, he was defeated at Srirangapatnam. He died fighting. Mysore was given to Prince Krishna who belonged to the former Hindu dynasty. He accepted the subsidiary alliance.
The growing power of Haider Ali in the middle of the 18th century was a source of anxiety to the English, the Nizam and the Marathas. So they formed a triple alliance and declared war against Haider Ali in 1767-the First Anglo-Mysore War. As Haider All was a great diplomat, he bought off the Marathas and won over the Nizam and thus broke the alliance. The war was brought to an end by signing of the Treaty of Madras (1769). All the conquered territories were returned to their respective owners.
After the first Mysore war, the English promised to help Haider All if he was attacked by another power. But when the Marathas attacked his territory in 1771, the English refused to help him. Further, during the American War of Independence, France joined America against England (1778).
Upon this the English captured all the French possessions in India. One of them was the port of Mahe, which was of great importance to Haider All. He asked the English to vacate it. As they did not do so, Haider Ali was forced to declare war in 1780. In the Second Anglo-Mysore War, Haider All was initially successful, but with the arrival of Sir Eyre Coote he was defeated at Porto Novo in 1781. In 1782, Haider Ali died and his son TIpu Sultan carried on the war till 1784 when the two sides concluded peace by signing the Treaty of Mangalore, on the basis of mutual restitution of conquests and liberation of the prisoners.
TIpu Sultan, who was an ambitious ruler, wanted to extend his territory. But the English were always in his way. TIpu Sultan attacked Travancore, which made the British enter the war in 1798 (Third Anglo-Mysore War). TIpu w~s successful in the beginning but with the English under Lord Cornwallis things changed. Cornwallis besieged TIpu in Srirangapatnam (or Seringapatam) in 1792. This compelled TIpu to sign the Treaty of Seringapatam in 1792. By this treaty, TIpu ceded half of his territory to the English and paid a large amount as war indemnity.
TIpu could not get over his defeat at the hands of Lord Cornwallis. He thus made common cause with the French. Wellesley considered this a hostile act. Further, TIpu refused to accept the subsidiary alliance. Thus came the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War in 1799. Though TIpu Sultan fought valiantly, he was defeated at Srirangapatnam. He died fighting. Mysore was given to Prince Krishna who belonged to the former Hindu dynasty. He accepted the subsidiary alliance.
EXPANSION OF BRITISH POWER
EXPANSION OF BRITISH POWER
The British set out to consolidate their position through direct war as well as other methods.
WARS WITH THE MARATHAS The first phase of the Anglo-Maratha struggle was brought about by the inordinate ambition of the English and the internal dissensions of the Marathas. Raghunath Rao sought the help of the English by signing the Treaty of Surat (1775) in order to secure the throne for himself and get rid of Narayan Rao's son. In the war that followed, i.e the First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782) fortunes wavered which compelled the contestants to conclude peace by signing the Treaty of Salbai (1782). By this treaty the English were confirmed in the possession of Salsette, and they recognised Madhava Rao Narayan as the rightful Peshwa; Raghunath Rao was pensioned off; and Scindhia got back all the territories west of the Yamuna. The most outstanding Maratha statesman of the time was Nana Phadnavis.
The second phase of the struggle was intimately connected with the circumstances created by the French menace to India. Lord Wellesley, who was, the Governor-Genera\ at the time, wanted the Marathas to accept his infamous system of subsidiary alliance.
The Marathas refused to accept it but were tricked by Wellesley due to their own internal differences. After the death of Nana Phadnavis, Peshwa Baji Rao II played intrigues by putting one Maratha chief against the other. But he himself got caught in the trap. Both Daulat Rao Scindhia and Jaswant Rao Holkar sought pre-eminence at Poona. Scindhia won over the Peshwa which led to the murder of Vithuji, brother of Jaswant Rao Holkar, in 1801. This brought the alliance of the Peshwa and Scindhia to battle Holkar. They were defeated by the Holkar at Hadapsar in 1802 who placed Vinayak Rao on the throne. This made Baji Rao II take English help. He signed the Treaty of Bassein in 1802. This was regarded as a humiliation by the other Marathas. Scindhia and Bhonsle combined to oppose it and the rivals fought each other in the Second Anglo-Maratha War, (1803-1806). But they were defeated. Bhonsle and Scindhia entered into the subsidiary alliance, by concluding the Treaty of Deogaon and the Treaty of Surji-Arjangaon respectively in December1803. The Holkar was still going strong and the English negotiated peace with him.
The third and the final phase of struggle began with the coming of Lord Hastings as Governor-General in 1813. The Peshwa made a last bid to throw off the British yoke. Daulat Rao Scindhia, Appa Sahib of Nagpur, and Malhar Rao Holkar II rose in arms against the British. But the entire Maratha force was defeated in the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818). Baji Rao II's possessions in Poona were merged in the Bombay Presidency. The Peshwaship was abolished; Baji Rao II was allowed to spend his last days at Bithur near I<.anpur on a pension of Rs eight lakh a year. The small kingdom of Satara, formed out of the Peshwa's dominions; was given to Pratap Sinha, a iineal descendant of Shivaji and the formal head of the Maratha empire. The English became the paramount power in India.
The British set out to consolidate their position through direct war as well as other methods.
WARS WITH THE MARATHAS The first phase of the Anglo-Maratha struggle was brought about by the inordinate ambition of the English and the internal dissensions of the Marathas. Raghunath Rao sought the help of the English by signing the Treaty of Surat (1775) in order to secure the throne for himself and get rid of Narayan Rao's son. In the war that followed, i.e the First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782) fortunes wavered which compelled the contestants to conclude peace by signing the Treaty of Salbai (1782). By this treaty the English were confirmed in the possession of Salsette, and they recognised Madhava Rao Narayan as the rightful Peshwa; Raghunath Rao was pensioned off; and Scindhia got back all the territories west of the Yamuna. The most outstanding Maratha statesman of the time was Nana Phadnavis.
The second phase of the struggle was intimately connected with the circumstances created by the French menace to India. Lord Wellesley, who was, the Governor-Genera\ at the time, wanted the Marathas to accept his infamous system of subsidiary alliance.
The Marathas refused to accept it but were tricked by Wellesley due to their own internal differences. After the death of Nana Phadnavis, Peshwa Baji Rao II played intrigues by putting one Maratha chief against the other. But he himself got caught in the trap. Both Daulat Rao Scindhia and Jaswant Rao Holkar sought pre-eminence at Poona. Scindhia won over the Peshwa which led to the murder of Vithuji, brother of Jaswant Rao Holkar, in 1801. This brought the alliance of the Peshwa and Scindhia to battle Holkar. They were defeated by the Holkar at Hadapsar in 1802 who placed Vinayak Rao on the throne. This made Baji Rao II take English help. He signed the Treaty of Bassein in 1802. This was regarded as a humiliation by the other Marathas. Scindhia and Bhonsle combined to oppose it and the rivals fought each other in the Second Anglo-Maratha War, (1803-1806). But they were defeated. Bhonsle and Scindhia entered into the subsidiary alliance, by concluding the Treaty of Deogaon and the Treaty of Surji-Arjangaon respectively in December1803. The Holkar was still going strong and the English negotiated peace with him.
The third and the final phase of struggle began with the coming of Lord Hastings as Governor-General in 1813. The Peshwa made a last bid to throw off the British yoke. Daulat Rao Scindhia, Appa Sahib of Nagpur, and Malhar Rao Holkar II rose in arms against the British. But the entire Maratha force was defeated in the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818). Baji Rao II's possessions in Poona were merged in the Bombay Presidency. The Peshwaship was abolished; Baji Rao II was allowed to spend his last days at Bithur near I<.anpur on a pension of Rs eight lakh a year. The small kingdom of Satara, formed out of the Peshwa's dominions; was given to Pratap Sinha, a iineal descendant of Shivaji and the formal head of the Maratha empire. The English became the paramount power in India.
THE DUAL GOVERNMENT OF BENGAL
THE DUAL GOVERNMENT OF BENGAL Following the Treaty of Allahabad (1765), Robert Clive set up the infamous dual system of administration in Bengal wherein the Company acquired the real power, while the. responsibility of administration rested on the Nawab of Bengal. Under the 'dual' or double government system, the Company got both the diwani (revenue) and nizamat (civil administration) functions of Bengal from two different sources-diwani from the Mughal emperor and nizamat from the nawab of Bengal.
As the diwan, the Company was authorised to collect revenues of the province, while through the right to nominate the deputy subahdar it was in a position to control the nizamat or the police and judicial powers. The deputy subahdar could not be removed without the consent of the Company. However, at this point of time, the Company was neither willing nor able to collect the revenue directly.
Hence, it appointed two deputy diwans for exercising diwani functions-Mohammad Reza Khan for Bengal and Raja Sitah Roy for Bihar. Mohammad Reza Khan also functioned as deputy nizam. In this way, the whole administration of Bengal was exercised through Indian agency, although the actual authority rested with the Company.
The dual government system held a great advantage for the British-they had power without responsibility. The Nawab and his officials were responsible for administration, but they had no power to discharge it.
The system had many weaknesses that ultimately led to administrative breakdown. The peasantry of Bengal suffered greatly due to the decline of agriculture and arbitrary revenue demands. Trade and commerce were disrupted, and the industry and skills ruined. .
As the diwan, the Company was authorised to collect revenues of the province, while through the right to nominate the deputy subahdar it was in a position to control the nizamat or the police and judicial powers. The deputy subahdar could not be removed without the consent of the Company. However, at this point of time, the Company was neither willing nor able to collect the revenue directly.
Hence, it appointed two deputy diwans for exercising diwani functions-Mohammad Reza Khan for Bengal and Raja Sitah Roy for Bihar. Mohammad Reza Khan also functioned as deputy nizam. In this way, the whole administration of Bengal was exercised through Indian agency, although the actual authority rested with the Company.
The dual government system held a great advantage for the British-they had power without responsibility. The Nawab and his officials were responsible for administration, but they had no power to discharge it.
The system had many weaknesses that ultimately led to administrative breakdown. The peasantry of Bengal suffered greatly due to the decline of agriculture and arbitrary revenue demands. Trade and commerce were disrupted, and the industry and skills ruined. .
BATILE OF BUXAR
BATILE OF BUXAR Soon, differences arose between Mir Kasim and the English due to Kasim's desire to assert his authority, especially, on the matter of private trade by the servants of the Company. He was deposed by the English in 1763. He took refuge with Shuja-ud-daula, the Nawab of Avadh. The Mughal emperor, Shah Alam II, and Shuja-ud-daula decided to support Mir Kasim. Thus the . three of them formed an alliance and invaded Bengal and reached Buxar. The English officer, Major Munro, defeated them in the Battle of Buxar in October 1764. The importance of this battle lay in the fact that not only the Nawab of Bengal but the emperor bf India also was defeated. Further, under the Treaty of Allahabad (1765), the English got the diwani (or right to collect revenue) of Bengal and thus became the master of the whole of Bengal (i.e. Bengal, Bihar and Orissa). The Mughal emperor was virtually their prisoner at Allahabad.
ROBERT CLIVE A survey of this period of British rule cannot be complete without a reference to Robert Clive, who joined the army after resigning from a clerk's post. He was instrumental in laying the foundations of British power in India. He was made the Governor of Bengal twice from 1757 to 60 and then from 1765 to 67. He administered Bengal under the dual government system till his return to England where he committed suicide in 1774.
ROBERT CLIVE A survey of this period of British rule cannot be complete without a reference to Robert Clive, who joined the army after resigning from a clerk's post. He was instrumental in laying the foundations of British power in India. He was made the Governor of Bengal twice from 1757 to 60 and then from 1765 to 67. He administered Bengal under the dual government system till his return to England where he committed suicide in 1774.
BATTLE OF PLASSEY
BATTLE OF PLASSEY
When the news of the English capitulation over Calcutta reached Madras, the Company authorities decided to send an army to counter the situation. The command of the expedition was given to Robert Clive. He cleverly won over to his side Manik Chand, the officer in charge of Calcutta, and arranged a conspiracy by which Mir Jafar would be made the Nawab. The English further captured the French settlement of Chandranagore in March 1757. On June 23, 1757, the British and the Nawab's forces faced each other on the fields of Plassey (in the Nadia district of the present West Bengal). The Nawab soon left the field and his army was completely routed. On the Nawab's side, Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh stood still with their large armies, and only a small force under Mohanlal and Mir Madan, backed by a French officer, took part in the battle. Siraj-ud-daula was caught and put to death by Mir Jafar's son, Miran.
As a resUlt of this victory, Mir Jafar became the Nawab of Bengal. He gave large sums of money plus the zamindari of 24 parganas to the English. The Battle of Plassey had political significance for it laid the foundation of the British empire in India, it has been rightly regarded as the starting point of British rule in India. The battle established the military supremacy of the English in Bengal. Their main rivals, the French, were ousted. They obtained a grant of territories for the maintenance of a properly equipped military force, and their prestige increased manifold. But there was no apparent change in the form of government, though the supreme control of affairs passed to Clive, on whose. support the new Nawab, Mir Jafar, was entirely dependent for maintaining his newly acquired position. The sovereignty of the English over Calcutta was recognised, and the English posted a Resident at the Nawab's court.
Mir Jafar, however, was irritated by the interference of Clive. He entered into a conspiracy with the Dutch at Chinsura. But the Dutch were defeated and humbled at Bedara in November 1759. The treachery of Mir Jafar and his failure to make the payments due to the Company, made him distasteful to the English who now made Mir Kasim, the son-in-law of Mir Jafar, the Nawab in return for outstanding dues and three districts of Burdwan, Midnapur and Chittagong.
When the news of the English capitulation over Calcutta reached Madras, the Company authorities decided to send an army to counter the situation. The command of the expedition was given to Robert Clive. He cleverly won over to his side Manik Chand, the officer in charge of Calcutta, and arranged a conspiracy by which Mir Jafar would be made the Nawab. The English further captured the French settlement of Chandranagore in March 1757. On June 23, 1757, the British and the Nawab's forces faced each other on the fields of Plassey (in the Nadia district of the present West Bengal). The Nawab soon left the field and his army was completely routed. On the Nawab's side, Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh stood still with their large armies, and only a small force under Mohanlal and Mir Madan, backed by a French officer, took part in the battle. Siraj-ud-daula was caught and put to death by Mir Jafar's son, Miran.
As a resUlt of this victory, Mir Jafar became the Nawab of Bengal. He gave large sums of money plus the zamindari of 24 parganas to the English. The Battle of Plassey had political significance for it laid the foundation of the British empire in India, it has been rightly regarded as the starting point of British rule in India. The battle established the military supremacy of the English in Bengal. Their main rivals, the French, were ousted. They obtained a grant of territories for the maintenance of a properly equipped military force, and their prestige increased manifold. But there was no apparent change in the form of government, though the supreme control of affairs passed to Clive, on whose. support the new Nawab, Mir Jafar, was entirely dependent for maintaining his newly acquired position. The sovereignty of the English over Calcutta was recognised, and the English posted a Resident at the Nawab's court.
Mir Jafar, however, was irritated by the interference of Clive. He entered into a conspiracy with the Dutch at Chinsura. But the Dutch were defeated and humbled at Bedara in November 1759. The treachery of Mir Jafar and his failure to make the payments due to the Company, made him distasteful to the English who now made Mir Kasim, the son-in-law of Mir Jafar, the Nawab in return for outstanding dues and three districts of Burdwan, Midnapur and Chittagong.
CONQUEST OF BENGAL
CONQUEST OF BENGAL
During the reign of Muhammad Shah Rangila, Alivardi Khan, the governor of Bengal, declared his independence (in 1741) and made Murshidabad his capital. He died in 1756 and was succeeded by his grandson, Mirza Mohammad, better known as Siraj-ud-daula. As soon as he ascended the throne, a quarrel arose between him and the English over the fortification of - Fort William by the English and their part in political inhigues. Finding his authority in danger, Siraj-ud-daula launched an offensive against the English. The Fort was besieged on June 15, 1756, and the Nawab captured and placed it under the charge of Manik Chanq. Mention may be made here of the much propagated 'Black Hole Tragedy'. Siraj-ud-daula is believed to nave imprisoned 146 English persons who were lodged in a very tiny room due to which 123 of them died of suffocation. However, historians either do not believe it, or say that the
number of victims must have been much smaller.
During the reign of Muhammad Shah Rangila, Alivardi Khan, the governor of Bengal, declared his independence (in 1741) and made Murshidabad his capital. He died in 1756 and was succeeded by his grandson, Mirza Mohammad, better known as Siraj-ud-daula. As soon as he ascended the throne, a quarrel arose between him and the English over the fortification of - Fort William by the English and their part in political inhigues. Finding his authority in danger, Siraj-ud-daula launched an offensive against the English. The Fort was besieged on June 15, 1756, and the Nawab captured and placed it under the charge of Manik Chanq. Mention may be made here of the much propagated 'Black Hole Tragedy'. Siraj-ud-daula is believed to nave imprisoned 146 English persons who were lodged in a very tiny room due to which 123 of them died of suffocation. However, historians either do not believe it, or say that the
number of victims must have been much smaller.
CAUSES FOR THE ENGLISH SUCCESS
CAUSES FOR THE ENGLISH SUCCESS
(I) The English Company was a private enterprise-this created a sense of self-confidence among the people; the French Company was state-owned;
(ii) the English navy was superior to the French navy-it helped to cut off the link between the French possessions in India and France;
(iii) the English held three important places, i.e. Calcutta, Bombay and Madras whereas the French had only Pondicherry;
(iv) the French subordinated their commercial interest to territorial ambition, which made the French Company short of funds.
(I) The English Company was a private enterprise-this created a sense of self-confidence among the people; the French Company was state-owned;
(ii) the English navy was superior to the French navy-it helped to cut off the link between the French possessions in India and France;
(iii) the English held three important places, i.e. Calcutta, Bombay and Madras whereas the French had only Pondicherry;
(iv) the French subordinated their commercial interest to territorial ambition, which made the French Company short of funds.
Sunday, November 29, 2009
THE THIRD CARNATIC WAR (1758-1763)
THE THIRD CARNATIC WAR (1758-1763)
In 1756, a war, known as the Seven Years' War, broke out between the French and English in Europe. This led to a war in India between the two Companies.
The third and the final round of struggle proved decisive in the Battle of Wandisvash in 1760. Pon<:licherry was besieged by the English forces under General Coote till it surrendered in 1761. This effectively ended French power in India. Pondicherry and some other French settlements were no doubt returned to the French by the Treaty of Paris (1763) but these were never to be fortified.
In 1756, a war, known as the Seven Years' War, broke out between the French and English in Europe. This led to a war in India between the two Companies.
The third and the final round of struggle proved decisive in the Battle of Wandisvash in 1760. Pon<:licherry was besieged by the English forces under General Coote till it surrendered in 1761. This effectively ended French power in India. Pondicherry and some other French settlements were no doubt returned to the French by the Treaty of Paris (1763) but these were never to be fortified.
THE SECOND CARNATIC WAR (1749-1754)
THE SECOND CARNATIC WAR (1749-1754) With the death of Asaf Jah, the Nizam of Hyderabad, in 1748, a dispute arose regarding the succession. There was also a dispute about the Nawabship of Carnatic. Dupleix, taking advantage of the situation, decided to support Chanda Sahib to the Nawabship and Muzaffar Jang to the Nizam's position while the English decided to support the rival party-Nasir Jang and Muhammad Ali. However, in the ensuing war, both Nasir Jang and Muzaffar Jang died. But the French General, Bussy, who was a soldier-diplomat, made Salabat Jang the Nizarn of Hyderabad and remained there for seven years to guide the affairs of the state. The new Nizam ceded the Northern Circars to the French. At this time the French position was supreme in the Deccan, but with the arrival of Robert Clive fortunes turned.
Clive, with his extraordinary foresight, gave an order to attack Arcot (1751) in order to divert Chanda Sahib's attention. When Chanda Sahib sent his son Raza Sahib to defend Arcot, Clive besieged Thiruchirapally an<:l defeated Chanda Sahib who was later executed. The victory of the English gave the Nawabship of Carnatic to Muhammad Ali. But he was only a puppet Nawab; the real power was in the hands of the English. In the meantime, Dupleix was recalled in 1754 and was succeeded by Godeheu who made peace with the English by signing the Treaty of Pondicherry
in 1755.
The superior English generalship was demonstrated when their protege, Muhammad Ali, was installed as the Nawab of Carnatic. The French were still strongly placed at Hyderabad, but their dominance in the Deccan was definitely undermined.
Clive, with his extraordinary foresight, gave an order to attack Arcot (1751) in order to divert Chanda Sahib's attention. When Chanda Sahib sent his son Raza Sahib to defend Arcot, Clive besieged Thiruchirapally an<:l defeated Chanda Sahib who was later executed. The victory of the English gave the Nawabship of Carnatic to Muhammad Ali. But he was only a puppet Nawab; the real power was in the hands of the English. In the meantime, Dupleix was recalled in 1754 and was succeeded by Godeheu who made peace with the English by signing the Treaty of Pondicherry
in 1755.
The superior English generalship was demonstrated when their protege, Muhammad Ali, was installed as the Nawab of Carnatic. The French were still strongly placed at Hyderabad, but their dominance in the Deccan was definitely undermined.
THE FIRST CARNATIC WAR (1746-1748)
THE FIRST CARNATIC WAR (1746-1748)
In 1740, a war, known as the Austrian war of succession, broke out in Europe. In this war, England and France took opposite sides. This led to a war between the English and French trading Companies in India also. The French under Dupleix captured Madras in 1746. They tried to capture Fort St. David, an English possession to the south of Pondicherry, but failed to do so. The English tried in vain to recapture Madras. In the meanwhile, the war of Austri~ succession came to an end and so did the First Carnatic Warinconclusively. The Treaty of Aix-La Chapelle (1748) handed Madras back to the English Company. The First Carnatic War is also memorable for the Battle of St. Thome (1746), in which a small French army under Captain Paradise defeated the Carnatic Nawab's large army commanded by Mahfuz Khan as the latter attempted to force the French to evacuate Madras. The French victory clearly demonstrated the superiority of well-trained and disciplined European troops against the loose Indian levies.
In 1740, a war, known as the Austrian war of succession, broke out in Europe. In this war, England and France took opposite sides. This led to a war between the English and French trading Companies in India also. The French under Dupleix captured Madras in 1746. They tried to capture Fort St. David, an English possession to the south of Pondicherry, but failed to do so. The English tried in vain to recapture Madras. In the meanwhile, the war of Austri~ succession came to an end and so did the First Carnatic Warinconclusively. The Treaty of Aix-La Chapelle (1748) handed Madras back to the English Company. The First Carnatic War is also memorable for the Battle of St. Thome (1746), in which a small French army under Captain Paradise defeated the Carnatic Nawab's large army commanded by Mahfuz Khan as the latter attempted to force the French to evacuate Madras. The French victory clearly demonstrated the superiority of well-trained and disciplined European troops against the loose Indian levies.
ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY
ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY
The English and the French Companies had been established with the object of trading with India. But when, after the invasion of Nadir Shah, they found the Mughal empire weak, both of them sought to establish political power. The natural result was a war between them, which lasted for about twenty years. This war was fought in the Carnatic because both the Companies had important possessions in that part. The English came out victorious in the end.
The English and the French Companies had been established with the object of trading with India. But when, after the invasion of Nadir Shah, they found the Mughal empire weak, both of them sought to establish political power. The natural result was a war between them, which lasted for about twenty years. This war was fought in the Carnatic because both the Companies had important possessions in that part. The English came out victorious in the end.
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